| Date |
Scientist |
Contribution |
1900
|
Duparc et al.
|
Treatise on chemical analysis of rocks.
|
|
Osann
|
Chemical classification of igneous rocks based on the AFC diagram.
|
|
Bénard
|
Experimental demonstration of the cellular nature of convection.
|
|
de Launay
|
Concept of metallogenic provinces. (See Lindgren, 1909).
|
1901
|
Adams and Nicholson
|
Plastic deformation of calcite and dolomite in nickel steel jackets at high pressures and low temperatures.
|
|
Bahkius Roozeboom
|
First prediction of the stability regions for graphite and diamond.
|
|
Teall
|
Accounted for differentiation of magma by Soret process.
|
|
Lewis
|
Defined the concept of fugacity.
|
1902
|
Weinschenk
|
Geological aspects of petrology (textbook).
|
|
Cross et al.
|
CIPW classification of igneous rocks.
|
|
Heräus
|
Developed wire-wound, electrical-resistance furnace for temperatures to at least 1500deg. C.
|
|
Doelter
|
First qualitative estimate of the relative viscosities of melted natural rocks.
|
|
Verneuil
|
Flame fusion technique for single crystal growth.
|
|
Rutherford and Soddy
|
Nature of radioactivity. Proportional to number of atoms in sample.
|
|
Lisell
|
First use of the manganin gauge for measuring pressure.
|
1903
|
Daly
|
Single fundamental vitreous basaltic layer. (See von Cotta, 1858; Green, 1875)
|
|
Daly
|
Concept of stoping (See Barrell, 1907).
|
|
Schweig
|
Differentiation based on crystal settling and remelting of sunken crystals.
|
|
Tammann
|
Crystallization
and melting.
|
|
Kultashev
|
Studied Na2SiO3-CaSiO3 system using thermal analysis method.
|
|
Becke
|
Crystalline schists; petrography of metamorphic rocks. Introduced concept of depth zones: Mineralogy depended on pressure-temperature conditions at time of formation. Eclogite high-pressure form of gabbro (See Fermor, 1913).
|
1904
|
Vogt
|
First calorimetric determination of the heat of melting of major rock forming silicates.
|
|
Harker
|
Described "inclined sheets" renamed by Bailey and Thomas (1924) as "cone sheets."
|
|
Grubenmann
|
"Die kristallinen Schiefer."
|
|
Van Hise
|
"Treatise on Metamorphism."
|
|
Washington
|
Treatise on chemical analysis of rocks.
|
1905
|
Carnegie
|
Geophysical Laboratory established as a department of the Carnegie Institution of Washington.
|
|
Chamberlin
|
Growth of the earth: The planetesimal hypothesis.
|
|
Day et al.
|
Phase diagram for plagioclase solid solutions.
|
|
Steinmann
|
Defined the ophiolite assemblage of serpentinized ultrabasic and basic rocks with pillow lavas (diabase-spilite) and deep-sea cherts. Later called the "Steinmann trinity" by Hess (1955).
|
|
Einstein
|
Presented theoretical relationship between diffusivity and viscosity as inversely proportional.
|
1906
|
Doelter
|
Order of crystallization altered by undercooling caused by high viscosity.
|
|
Tschirwinsky
|
Reproduction of artificial minerals reviewed.
|
|
Ginsberg
|
Studied CaSiO3-MgSiO3 system equilibrium relations with a
pyrometer and examined products microscopically.
|
|
Oldham
|
Deduces molten earth's core from seismic data.
|
|
Bell
|
Defines process of granitization as metamorphism or refusion of pre-existing rocks.
(Cf. Hutton, 1795).
|
|
Adams and Coker
|
Measured compressibility of rocks. Approximate perfect elasticity and obey Hooke's law closely.
|
1907
|
Barrell
|
Deduced stoping mechanism in Marysvale, Montana, stock. Discovered independently, publication delayed. (See Daly, 1903).
|
|
Sederholm
|
Migmatites.
|
|
Spurr
|
Magmatic theory of ore deposition.
|
|
Lindgren
|
Characterized depth zones of ore minerals following depth zones of metamorphic rocks of Van Hise (1904).
|
|
Joly
|
Explained halos around inclusions in micas as due to radioactivity.
|
|
Boltwood
|
First
calculation of mineral age from published analyses of uranium and lead. Method
suggested by Prof. E. Rutherford.
|
|
Lewis
|
Defined
the ratio of fugacity at a given state to a standard state as activity.
|
1908
|
Clarke
|
"Data
of Geochemistry," first edition.
|
|
Lewis
|
Settling
of olivine, Palisades, NY.
|
|
Heritsch
|
Nodular
inclusions in basalts derived from peridotite at depth. (Cf. Lacroix, 1894).
|
|
Haber
and Le Rossignol
|
Invention
of cone-in-cone seal for hydrothermal pressure vessel.
|
1909
|
Harker
|
"Natural
history of igneous rocks." Variation diagrams in weight per cent. Mixing of
magmas. Frequency of silica in igneous rocks, timing of diastrophism and
magmatism, mineral zoning as a consequence of supersaturation.
|
|
Winchell
and Winchell
|
"Elements
of optical mineralogy." Emphasis on microscopic petrography.
|
|
Shepherd et al.
|
Quenching
method for phase-equilibria studies.
|
|
Merrill
|
Meteorites
are representative of the bulk composition of the earth (See Boisse, 1850).
|
|
Kozu
|
Effect
of temperature on feldspars.
|
|
Watanabe
|
Diffusion
in sulphide solutions.
|
|
Lindgren
|
Concept
of metallogenic epochs. Emphasized short and transitory times of conditions
favorable for ore deposition. (See de Launay, 1900)
|
|
Mohorovicic
|
Discovery
of a seismic discontinuity defining the base of the earth's crust.
|
|
Clough et al.
|
Mechanics
of cauldron subsidence at Glencoe, Scotland. Ring dikes and dike swarms.
|
|
Bastin
|
Observed
that certain clay schists have the composition of granites.
|
1910
|
Mrazec
|
Salt
diapir (See Mrazec, 1927; Wegmann, 1930).
|
|
Daly
|
Alkaline
rocks produced by interaction of magma with limestone.
|
|
Lindemann
|
Theory
of fusion: Structural interpretation of the dynamics of melting through
vibrational stretching of crystal bonds.
|
1911
|
Goldschmidt
|
Mineralogical
phase rule in contact metamorphism.
|
|
Wright
|
Methods
for Petrological-Microscopic Research.
|
|
Harker
|
Recognition
of alkalic and calcic igneous rock types.
|
|
von
Karman
|
Quantitative
study of plastic deformation of marble. Strength of rock a function of
confining pressure.
|
|
Reid
|
Recognized
faulting as an earthquake- generating mechanism.
|
|
Hess
|
Discovery
of cosmic rays.
|
|
Daly
|
Describes
"Two-phase convection" in magmas.
|
1912
|
Day
and Sosman
|
Thermodynamic
temperature scale based on nitrogen-gas thermometry.
|
|
Barrow
|
Metamorphic
zones in region of progressive metamorphism are bounded by isotherms.
|
|
Goldschmidt
|
First
calculation of P-T curve for a metamorphic reaction.
|
|
Lebedev
|
Reviewed
experimental work on mineral systems carried out at the Polytechnic Institute
of St. Petersburg.
|
|
Boeke
|
First
internally-heated, gas-media apparatus in which 1600o C. and 150
bars were maintained.
|
|
Vogt
|
Some
minerals require high pressure for stability.
|
|
von
Laue et al.
|
First
observation of the diffraction of X-rays by a crystal (sphalerite).
|
1913
|
Bragg
|
Bragg's
Law: Relates distance between planes of atoms to angle between X- ray beam and
atomic planes in crystal.
|
|
Fermor
|
Eclogite
is the high-pressure form of gabbro. (See Becke, 1903).
|
|
Schreinemakers
|
Topological
rules for graphic analysis of phase equilibria. (First of a series of 47
papers).
|
|
Liesegang
|
Rythmic
diffusion results in rings.
|
|
Sobral
|
Remelting
of acid rocks at basic contacts.
|
|
Ingersoll
and Zobel
|
Calculation
of cooling rate of lava and laccolith.
|
|
Shand
|
List
of minerals not stable with free silica.
|
|
Gutenberg
|
Radius
of the core determined to be 3500 km. from seismic observations. Envelope
around the core called the mantle. (See Wiechert, 1896).
|
1914
|
Eskola
|
Replacement
by pneumatolytic action in Orijarvi, Finland.
|
|
Bragg
|
First
crystal structure determination of a mineral (halite).
|
|
Johannsen
|
"Manual
of petrographic methods."
|
|
Daly
|
Gaseous
transfer.
|
|
Bridgman
|
Described
the unsupported-area principle for high-pressure packings.
|
|
Barrell
|
Introduction
of the terms lithosphere and asthenosphere.
|
|
Wagner
|
Proposed
depth zones in earth on basis of xenoliths from kimberlites. Recognized
different types of kimberlites.
|
1915
|
Tubingen
|
Role
of volatiles in differentiation.
|
|
Wegener
|
Theory
of continental drift. "The origin of continents and oceans."
|
|
Harper
|
Basaltic
magma generated from the fusion of an ultrabasic belt that enclosed the
metallic core of the earth.
|
|
Eskola
|
Applied
facies concept of Gressly (1838) to metamorphic rocks. Characterized the group
of rocks that reached, within defined limits, the same conditions of pressure and temperature as a result of metamorphism.
|
|
Boeke
|
Textbook
of physicochemical petrography.
|
1916
|
Shand
|
Recording
micrometer for modal analysis. Color ratio of igneous rock.
|
|
Sederholm
|
Deuteric
alteration.
|
1917
|
Schmidt
|
Petrographic
analysis by statistical methods.
|
|
Morey
and Fenner
|
Systematic
study of hydrous system at elevated pressures and temperatures.
|
|
Allen
and Lombard
|
Determination
of dissociation pressure of sulfides.
|
|
Harkins
|
First
systematic classification of stable nuclear species of elements.
|
1918
|
Goodchild
|
Redox
reaction of iron with water.
|
|
Stillwell
|
Metamorphic
diffusion.
|
|
Lindgren
|
Law
of equal volume replacement.
|
|
Czochralski
|
Single-crystal
synthesis by pulling seed from melt.
|
1919
|
Larmor
|
Dynamo
theory of the earth's magnetic field.
|
|
Harker
|
Concept
of stress and antistress minerals.
|
1920
|
Eskola
|
Metamorphic
facies.
|
|
Washington
|
Revision
of average composition of igneous rocks.
|
|
Brögger
|
Primary
origin of calcite from refusion of limestone. (Publ. 1921)
|
|
Niggli
|
"Die
leichtflüchtigen Bestandteile im Magma."
|
|
Niggli
|
Molecular
norm.
|
1921
|
Niggli
|
Resorption
of sinking crystals. (See Schweig, 1903).
|
|
Vogt
|
Statistical
study of composition of granites interpreted as eutectic.
|
|
Kôzu
and Endo
|
Structural
change in potassium feldspar (moonstone) observed at 700deg.C.
|
1922
|
Bowen
|
Reaction
series.
|
|
Goldschmidt
|
Genetic
lineage of igneous rocks. Independent illustration of magma evolution parallel
to "reaction series."
|
|
Washington
|
Recognized
two magma types with differing chemical and mineralogical characteristics:
plateau and cone basalts.
|
|
Shand
|
Proposed
three subgroups for alkaline rocks. (See Shand, 1927).
|
|
Morey
|
Crystallization
of volatile-bearing magma develops pressure that results in paroxysmal
eruptions.
|
|
Hadding
|
First
use of x-ray spectroscopy to analyze trace elements.
|
|
Eskola
|
First
use of sealed platinum tubes.
|
1923
|
Goldschmidt
|
Migration
of chemical elements.
|
|
Fenner
|
Hybrid
rocks of Katmai as products of wholesale melting and assimilation.
|
|
Read
|
Rock
types due to contamination and assimilation.
|
|
Adams
and Williamson
|
Pressure
gradient in earth from graphical integration of density.
|
|
Spurr
|
Textbook
on ore magmas.
|
1924
|
Bailey, et al.
|
Recognized
two magma types based on composition alone: plateau and non-porphyritic central basalts at Mull. (See Washington, 1922; Kennedy, 1933).
|
|
Grubenmann
and Niggli
|
"Die
Gesteines Metamorphose." (See Van Hise, 1904).
|
|
Tilley
|
Isograd
as boundary line for metamorphic zone.
|
|
Boydell
|
Theory
of ore deposition from colloidal solutions.
|
|
Watanabé
|
Experimental
study of diffusion with simultaneous precipitation of sulfides in clays,
limestone, and sand.
|
|
Morey
and Bowen
|
First
to suggest structural units in silicate melts.
|
1925
|
Desch
|
Defends
eutectics over reaction series.
|
|
Daly
|
Recognition
of paucity in compositions of intermediate rocks: "Daly gap".
|
|
Adams
and Williamson
|
Related
seismic velocities of primary and secondary waves to the compressibility and
density of rocks.
|
|
Sederholm
|
Questions
differentiation: should have more basalts than granites.
|
1926
|
Gutenberg
|
Low-velocity
layer at depths ranging from 70 to 150 Km.
|
|
Goldschmidt
|
First
table of ionic radii.
|
|
Bragg
and Brown
|
First
crystal structure determination giving atomic positions for a common rock
forming silicate (olivine).
|
1927
|
Smyth
|
Role
of volatiles in alkaline rock segregation.
|
|
Greig
|
Immiscibility
in silicate melts.
|
|
Shand
|
Rock
classification in which alumina as well as silica saturation is considered.
|
|
Du
Toit
|
Compared
the geology of South America and South Africa and supported concept of opening
of the Atlantic Ocean.
|
1928
|
Bowen
|
"The
evolution of the igneous rocks." Considered the most influential book on
petrology in the 20th century. Primary basaltic magmas derived from partial
melting of peridotite.
|
|
Wadati
|
Earthquakes
extend below crust and define dipping zone associated with trenches. (See
Benioff, l949).
|
1929
|
Fenner
and Piggot
|
First
calculation of mineral age from lead isotopes determined by mass spectrometry.
|
|
Fenner
|
Iron-enrichment
trend in the crystallization of basalt (See Teall, 1888).
|
|
Holmes
|
Mantle
convection is cause of continental drift and continental rifting.
|
|
Nutting
|
Frictional
melting.
|
1930
|
Sander
|
Petrofabric
analysis: geometrical method; x-ray application.
|
|
Wegmann
|
Granite
diapir.
|
|
Davenport
and Bain
|
Developed
time-temperature-transformation diagram for austenite, later used for natural
minerals.
|
|
Joly
|
Periodicity
of orogenesis due to radioactive heating in earth.
|
1931
|
Greig et al.
|
Demonstrate
that granite melts at lower temperature than basalt.
|
|
Goranson
|
First
quantitative measurement of the water content of granitic melt.
|
|
Peacock
|
Alkali-lime
index used for classifying igneous rocks.
|
|
Goldschmidt
|
Observed
that the germanium analog of forsterite was dimorphous with both olivine and
spinel structures (see 1936).
|
|
Onsager
|
Concept
of microscopical reversibility in treating irreversible transport processes.
(See Prigogine, 1947).
|
1932
|
Harker
|
"Metamorphism."
|
|
Bowen
and Schairer
|
First
use of electolytic iron crucibles in inert gas to buffer iron-bearing silicate
systems.
|
|
Fersman
|
First
systematic collection and analysis of soil and weathered rock samples for
metallometric surveying. Published l939.
|
1933
|
Kennedy
|
Olivine
basalt vs. tholeiite.
|
|
Goldschmidt
|
First
application of oxidation potentials to geochemical problems.
|
|
Daly
|
First
to suggest that moon originated from impact-induced fission of the earth.
Restated concept of vitreous basaltic substratum in earth. Not a world-circling
"sea of magma."
|
1934
|
Kani
|
First
measurement of the viscosity of liquids of natural basalt at high temp-
eratures with rotating cylinder technique.
|
1935
|
Wegmann
|
Developed
the concept of migmatization fronts.
|
|
Halm
|
Explained
disruption of Wegener's Pangaea by terrestrial expansion. (See Carey, 1958).
|
|
Bridgman
|
Invention
of the shearing "squeezer".
|
1936
|
Piggot
|
First
core samples of ocean bottom.
|
|
Korzhinskii
|
Theory
of infiltration metasomatism.
|
|
Griggs
|
Deformation
of rocks under high confining pressures.
|
|
Cloos
|
Demonstrated
the forceful intrusion of magma as a diapir with oriented tabloid feldspar
phenocrysts.
|
|
Bernal
|
Suggested
400 Km. discontinuity due to phase transformation of olivine to spinel (See
1966).
|
|
Lehmann
|
Deduced
outer liquid core and a solid inner core from rapid or discontinuous increase
in P wave velocities.
|
|
Reynolds
|
Remelting
of acid rocks; mobilization.
|
1937
|
Tyrrell
|
Flood
basalts erupted from fissures.
|
|
Bragg
|
"Atomic
structure of minerals."
|
|
Merwin
and Lombard
|
Technique
for holding natural and synthetic samples at a defined vapor pressure of
sulphur. Cu-Fe-S system.
|
|
Goldschmidt
|
Table
of absolute abundances of elements in earth from solar and meteoritic data.
(See Clarke, 1889)
|
|
Goldschmidt
|
Suggested
that beta decay of rubidium to strontium could be used to determine age of a
mineral.
|
1938
|
Kennedy
|
Recognized
two independent primary magmas derived from separate and distinct layers in
crust.
|
|
Hess
|
Suggested
magma roughly the composition of serpentine could account for the "necessary
low temperature" of ultramafic liquids. (See Bowen and Tuttle, l949).
|
|
Gutenberg
and Richter
|
Deepest
earthquake shock on record. In 1934 beneath Flores Sea, East Indies, at depth
of 720 Km. (Relocated at 680 Km. by Stark and Frohlich, l985)
|
|
Goranson
|
First
determination of the hydrous melting curve of a mineral.
|
1939
|
Wager
and Deer
|
Skaergaard
memoir; role of convection currents.
|
|
Hess
|
Explanation
of adcumulus crystal growth.
|
|
Bullard
|
First
surface heat flow measurements (South Africa).
|
|
Benfield
|
First
surface heat flow measurements (Great Britain).
|
|
Flügge
|
Predicted
that a self-sustaining nuclear reaction might take place in a natural uranium
deposit. (See Bodu et al., 1972)
|
|
Leipunsky
|
Calculation
of the stability fields of graphite and diamond from thermodynamic data (See
Roozeboom, 1901).
|
|
Lodochnikov
|
High
density of the earth's core due to pressure induced transformation of Mg-Fe
silicates into high-density phases.
|
1940
|
Bowen
|
Progressive
metamorphism of a siliceous dolomite.
|
|
Morey
|
First
hydrothermal pressure vessel in which pressure externally controlled.
|
|
Watanabe
|
Observed
eruption of molten sulfur in Hokkaido, Japan.
|
1942
|
Schairer
|
Constructed
"flow sheet" to describe univariant lines and invariant points in
multicomponent system.
|
1944
|
Daly
|
Basaltic
magma derived from nearly continuous vitreous basalt layer at base of crust.
(See Daly, 1903)
|
1945
|
Darken
and Gurry
|
Introduced
gas-mixing techniques for controlling oxygen fugacities at high temperatures.
|
|
Bowen
|
Plagioclase
effect: If lime present in liquid, plagioclase will contain some anorthite.
|
1946
|
Houtermans
|
First
to apply the term isochron to ratios of lead isotopes for determining age.
|
|
Libby
|
Prediction
of natural radiocarbon. Applied to carbon isotope method of dating following
year.
|
1947
|
Winkler
|
Determined
experimentally the growth rate of nepheline in melt as a function of
temperature.
|
|
Prigogine
|
Thermodynamics
of irreversible processes. (See Onsager, 1931).
|
|
Barth
|
Predicts
progressive decrease in oxygen with depth in the lithosphere.
|
|
Torgeson
and Sahama
|
Determination
of the heat of formation of silicates with hydrofluoric acid calorimeter.
|
|
Aldrich
and Nier
|
Demonstrated
Ar40 is produced from decay of K40 by measuring minerals
of different ages.
|
1948
|
Kennedy
|
Experimental
determination of the equilibrium constant for iron oxides in a basalt melt at atmospheric pressure.
|
|
Fenner
|
Immiscibility is an important factor in magmatic differentiation. (Cf. Greig, 1927).
|
1949
|
Miyashiro
|
First
tentative phase diagram for Al2SiO5 minerals.
|
|
Bowen
and Tuttle
|
Demonstrated
experimentally the unlikelyhood of a serpentine magma. Concluded ultramafic
rocks intruded in the solid state. (See Hess, 1938).
|
|
Bullard et al.
|
Designed
successful probe for measuring heat flow through the ocean floor. (Publ. l952).
|
|
Benioff
|
Great dipping faults associated with trenches marked by tabular zones of earthquakes. (Called Benioff, Benioff-Wadati, or Wadati-Benioff zones by others.)
|
|
King
|
Demonstrated the consanguinity of carbonatite-nephelinite and carbonatitic ring complexes.
|